Determinantes de la salud ambiental en el Perú: curva de Kuznets 1990-2015 / Determinants of environmental health in Peru: Kuznets curve 1990-2015

El ambiente es el lugar donde vive, trabaja y se desarrolla el hombre, compuesto básicamente por dos sistemas interrelacionados e independientes: por una parte, es el hombre conviviendo en una sociedad con características muy diferentes, y por el otro lado, los elementos de la naturaleza siendo transformados por los hombres donde viven inmersos. En ese sentido, la degradación y contaminación ambiental, tienen efectos notables en la vidad de los seres humanos, siendo responsable de la muerte de cientos de millones de personas que sufren de enfermedades respiratorias asociadas con la contaminación externa e interior del aire. En ese sentido, ya a partir de las últimas décadas, las emisiones de dióxido de carbono han alcanzado cifras record superando las 10 gigatoneladas. Este incremento está asociado al sector energético (47%), la industria (30%) y el transporte (11%) principalmente, lo que ha logrado un calentamiento global progresivo de la superficie terrestre con las consecuencias típicas asociadas al derretimiento de los glaciares, cambios en los ciclos hidrológicos, falta de alimentos, aumento de los fenómenos meteorológicos, migraciones descontroladas, enfermedades y pandemias. De este modo, surge la economía ambiental, una disciplina que intenta dar repuestas integrales entre ambos tópicos, medio ambiente y economía, donde diversas teorías tratan de explicar los fenómenos observados. El concepto de las Curvas de Kuznets Ambientales (CKA), señala una relación dinámica entre el PIB y la calidad del medio ambiente. El objetivo del artículo ha sido determinar si en el Perú, durante el periodo 1990-2015, ha habido una relación en forma de U invertida entre la producción interna y la contaminación del aire. La investigación prueba que, en el Perú, durante el periodo 1990-2015, no ha habido una relación en forma de U invertida entre la producción interna y la contaminación del aire, sino que la producción interna ha tenido un impacto positivo y lineal sobre el dióxido de carbono y el óxido de nitrógeno(AU)

The environment is the place where man lives, works and develops, basically composed of two interrelated and independent systems: on the one hand, it is man living together in a society with very different characteristics, and on the other hand, the elements of the nature being transformed by men where they live immersed. In this sense, environmental degradation and pollution have notable effects on the lives of human beings, being responsible for the death of hundreds of millions of people who suffer from respiratory diseases associated with external and internal air pollution. In this sense, already in recent decades, carbon dioxide emissions have reached record figures, exceeding 10 gigatons. This increase is mainly associated with the energy sector (47%), industry (30%) and transport (11%), which has achieved a progressive global warming of the earth's surface with the typical consequences associated with the melting of glaciers, changes in hydrological cycles, lack of food, increased weather events, uncontrolled migrations, diseases and pandemics. In this way, environmental economics arises, a discipline that tries to provide comprehensive answers between both topics, environment and economy, where various theories try to explain the observed phenomena. The concept of the Environmental Kuznets Curves (EKC), indicates a dynamic relationship between GDP and the quality of the environment. The objective of the article has been to determine if in Peru, during the period 1990-2015, there has been an inverted U-shaped relationship between internal production and air pollution. The research proves that, in Peru, during the period 1990-2015, there has not been an inverted U-shaped relationship between domestic production and air pollution, but rather that domestic production has had a positive and linear impact on air pollution. carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide(AU)

Protección financiera en salud: evolución y comparación del gasto de bolsillo de los hogares chilenos / Financial protection for health care expenses provided by public and private systems in Chile

Background: People need a financial protection system to face the high costs of health care. Aim: To compare the financial protection between households affiliated to the Chilean public health financing system (FONASA) or to a private health financing system (ISAPRE). To describe the evolution of protection at the national level between 2007 and 2012. Material and Methods: As proposed by the World Bank, impact indicators to measure the equity and efficiency of the insurance systems were generated. Namely, average out-of-pocket expenses by insurance and average out-of-pocket spending as a percentage of expenditure. Also, the evolution of out-of-pocket spending by quintiles and Gini Coefficient were measured as measure of equity. To determine these, Family Budget Surveys for 2007 and 2012 were used. Results: Household out-of-pocket spending increased by 14.12%. When expressed as a percentage of total expenditure, it grew from 5.6% to 6.2%. Household Gini coefficient and per capita out-of-pocket spending decreased and the ratio between the highest and lowest quintile out-of-pocket increased at both analysis levels. Pocket expense in absolute values or expressed as a percentage of total expenses was higher among persons insured in private systems than those affiliated to the public financing service. Conclusions: Out-of-pocket spending increased for all income groups and people insured in the public system had a lower absolute and relative spending than those insured in private systems.

Prevalence of primary sclerosing cholangitis in patients with ulcerative colitis and the risk of developing malignancies: a large prospective study / Prevalencia de colangitis esclerosante primaria en pacientes con colitis ulcerosa y el riesgo de desarrollar malignidades: un extenso estudio prospectivo

Background/aim: primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is associated with ulcerative colitis (UC) and seems to be a risk factor for colon cancer. However, taking into account that no data are available in South American population, we analyzed the prevalence of PSC in 1.333 patients with UC and the risk for developing colon cancer. Material: patients with persistent increases of alkaline phosphatase were studied by cholangiography and liver biopsy. To assess the risk of colon cancer, each patient with PSC and UC was matched with two control patients with UC without PSC of the same age, gender, extent and duration of UC. Results: the whole prevalence of PSC was 2.9% (39 patients) reaching 6.2% in extensive colitis. Seven (18 %) out of 39 patients with PSC developed colorectal carcinoma compared with 2 out of 78 (2.6%) in the control group (p=0.006). The cumulative risk of colorectal carcinoma was 11% and 18% after 10 and 20 years in the PSC group compared with 2% and 7% in the control group, respectively (p=0.002). Conclusion: this is the first prospective study performed in Latin America showing that the prevalence of PSC in patients with UC is similar to that reported in the Anglo-Saxon population. Patients with UC and PSC have a high risk of colorectal cancer.

Introducción/objetivos: la colangitis esclerosante primaria (CEP) se asocia a colitis ulcerosa (CU) y parece ser un factor de riesgo para cáncer de colon. Sin embargo, teniendo en cuenta que no existen datos disponibles en población de Sudamérica, nosotros analizamos la prevalencia de CEP en 1.333 pacientes con CU y el riesgo de desarrollar cáncer de colon. Material: los pacientes con fosfatasa alcalina persistentemente elevada fueron estudiados con colangiografía y biopsia hepática. Para determinar el riesgo de cáncer de colon cada paciente con CEP y CU fueron apareados con dos pacientes controles con CU sin CEP de la misma edad, sexo, extensión y duración de la CU. Resultados: la prevalencia total de CEP fue de 2.9% (39 pacientes), alcanzando una prevalencia del 6.2% en colitis extensa. Siete (18%) de 39 pacientes con CEP desarrollaron cáncer colorectal comparado con 2 de 78 en el grupo control (p=0.006). El riesgo acumulado de cáncer colorectal fue 11 y 18% después de 10 y 20 años en el grupo con CEP comparado con 2 y 7% en el grupo control, respectivamente (p=0.002). Conclusión: este es el primer estudio prospectivo realizado en Latinoamérica mostrando que la prevalencia de CEP en pacientes con CU es similar a la reportada en población anglosajona. Los pacientes con CU y CEP tienen un alto riesgo de cáncer colorectal.

Equidad en el financiamiento de la salud y protección financiera en Chile: una descripción general / Equity in health care financing and financial protection in Chile: a general description

La distribución del financiamiento de la salud, entre el sector público y el privado, es inequitativa. El 38 por ciento de los recursos totales que el país gasta, se ocupan en el 21 por ciento de la población (Isapre) y el 62 por ciento de los recursos se destina a la mayoría restante de 79 por ciento de la población (Fonasa). Dada la diferencia de ingresos entre las personas de ambos sistemas, el 59 por ciento de las cotizaciones van al sector privado y sólo el 41 por ciento al sector público, situación que es parcialmente compensada con aporte fiscal que compone poco más de la mitad del total de ingresos del sector público. El gasto per cápita total es prácticamente el doble en isapres respecto al Fonasa y la brecha tiende a aumentar en el tiempo, aunque de manera estable desde el año 2001. Los beneficios medidos en gasto per cápita en prestaciones y en subsidios de incapacidad laboral, son claramente desiguales. Los gastos de bolsillo, compuestos por co-pagos, pagos directos y gasto directo en fármacos, ocupan el segundo lugar en importancia para el financiamiento global de la salud en Chile (33 por ciento). La distribución del financiamiento por gasto de bolsillo, difiere entre el sector público y privado, siendo significativamente mayor en la Isapre. Aquellos que no están adscritos a un sistema de aseguramiento deben cancelar prácticamente la totalidad de los costos. Para disminuir las desigualdades, se requiere incentivar la existencia de mecanismos que promuevan tanto la solidaridad entre los sistemas, como la protección financiera de los mismos, aspectos centrales para la redistribución y efectiva equidad en el financiamiento para acceder a la atención de salud

Un programa de saneamiento ambiental como medio de adiestrar personal : Escuela de Salud Pública de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia / The environmental sanitation program as a means of personnel training

A new type of field practice which is being carried out by the School of Public Health of the National University of Colombia as part of a training program for health visitors and inspectors, is described and an evaluation is made of the results. The reasons for the change, as well as the changes made, are indicated. An outline is given of the planning and execution of these practical exercises, which consist essentially of an environmental sanitation program conducted by the students, under teacher supervision, and with the participation of the community benefited. The results are analyzed from the teaching viewpoint, and in relation to the construction of sanitary works. A comparison is made between the costs and the proportion of program goals attained. Finally, after some general comments the following main conclusions are drawn: 1. The program succeeded in fully achieving all the teaching objectives. 2. The objectives were achieved to a satisfactory degree, as can be seen by the following percentages attained: a. Water supply, 62.4 percent of the proposed objective; b. Sewage disposal, 74.8 percent as compared with the proposed 80 percent; c. Garbage disposal, 100 percent of the objective established; d. Literacy, 75 percent of the proposed goal. 3. The communities covered by this program were organized in such manner that they may be expected to continue to work independently toward their own improvement. 4. Program expenditures for both teaching and application are low. 5. The experiment in concentrating the resources on limited